American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology
Volume 186, Issue 5, Supplement , Pages S110-S126 , May 2002

Nitrous oxide for relief of labor pain: A systematic review

References 

  1. Rae S, Wildsmith J. So just who was James “Young” Simpson?. Br J Anaesth. 1997;79:271–273
  2. Richards W, Parbrook G, Wilson J, Stanislav Klikovitch . (1853-1910). Pioneer of nitrous oxide and oxygen analgesia. Anaesthesia. 1976;31:933–940
  3. Minnitt R. Self-administered anaesthesia in childbirth. Br Med J. 1934;1:501–503
  4. Maze M, Fuginaga M. Recent advances in understanding the actions and toxicity of nitrous oxide. Anaesthesia. 2000;55:311–314
  5. de Lima J, Hatch D, Torsney C. Nitrous oxide analgesia: a “sting in the tail.”. Anaesthesia. 2000;55:932–933
  6. Gibbs C, Krischer J, Peckham B, et al.  Obstetric anesthesia: a national survey. Anesthesiology. 1986;65:298–306
  7. Hawkins J, Gibbs C, Orleans M, et al.  Obstetric anesthesia work force survey, 1981 versus 1992. Anesthesiology. 1997;87:135–143
  8. Steer P. The methods of pain relief used. In:  Chamberlain G,  Wraight A,  Steer P editor. Pain and its relief in childbirth. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1993;p. 49
  9. Kangas-Saarela T, Kangas-Karki K. Pain and pain relief in labour: parturients' experiences. Intl J Obstet Anesth. 1994;3:67–74
  10. Capogna G, Alahuhta S, Celleno D, De Vlieger H, Moreira J, Morgan B, et al.  Maternal expectations and experiences of labour pain and analgesia: a multicentre study of nulliparous women. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1996;5:229–235
  11. Garcia J, Redshaw M, Fitzsimons B, Keene J. First class delivery. A national survey of women's views of maternity care. London: Audit Commission; 1998;
  12. Waldenstrom U, Pannifax J. Team midwifery care in a tertiary level obstetric service: a randomized controlled trial. Birth. 2000;27:168–173
  13. Tunstall M. Use of a fixed nitrous oxide and oxygen mixture from one cylinder. Lancet. 1961;2:964
  14. Wee M, Hasan M, Thomas T. Isoflurane in labour. [see comments] Anaesthesia. 1993;48:369–372
  15. Arora S, Tunstall M, Ross J. Self-administered mixture of Entonox and isoflurane in labour. Int J Obstet Anesthes. 1992;1:188–202
  16. Tunstall M, Ross J. Isoflurane, nitrous oxide and oxygen analgesic mixtures (correspondence). Anaesthesia. 1993;48:919
  17. Chan M, Mainland P, Gin T. Minimum alveolar concentration of halothane and enflurane are decreased in early pregnancy. Anesthesiology. 1996;85:782–786
  18. Waud B, Waud D. Calculated kinetics of distribution of nitrous oxide and methoxyflurane during intermittent administration in obstetrics. Anesthesiology. 1970;32:306–316
  19. Jones P, Rosen M, Mushin W, Jones E. Methoxyflurane and nitrous oxide as obstetric analgesics. II. A comparison by selfadministered intermittent inhalation. Br Med J. 1969;3:259–262
  20. Jones P, Rosen M, Mushin W, Jones E. Methoxyflurane and nitrous oxide as obstetric analgesics. I. A comparison by continuous administration. Br Med J. 1969;3:255–259
  21. Carstoniu J, Levytam S, Norman P, Daley D, Katz J, Sandler AN. Nitrous oxide in early labor. Safety and analgesic efficacy assessed by a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Anesthesiology. 1994;80:30–35
  22. Bergsjø P, Lindbaek E. Comparison between nitrous oxide and methoxyflurane for obstetrical analgesia. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1971;50:285–290
  23. McGuinness C, Rosen M. Enflurane as an analgesic in labour. Anaesthesia. 1984;39:24–26
  24. McLeod D, Ramayya G, Tunstall M. Self-administered isoflurane in labour. A comparative study with Entonox. Anaesthesia. 1985;40:424–426
  25. Abboud T, Shnider S, Wright R, et al.  Enflurane analgesia in obstetrics. Anesth Analg. 1981;60:133–137
  26. Stefani S, Hughes S, Shnider S, et al.  Neonatal neurobehavioral effects of inhalation analgesia for vaginal delivery. Anesthesiology. 1982;56:351–355
  27. Abboud T, Swart F, Zhu J, et al.  Desflurane analgesia for vaginal delivery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39:259–261
  28. Westling F, Milsom I, Zetterstrom H, Ekstrom-Jodal B. Effects of nitrous oxide/oxygen inhalation on the maternal circulation during vaginal delivery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1992;36:175–181
  29. Shnider S, Moya F, Thorndike V, et al.  Clinical and biochemical studies of cyclopropane analgesia in obstetrics. Anesthesiology. 1963;24:11–17
  30. Irestedt I. Current status of nitrous oxide for obstetric pain relief. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1994;38:771–772
  31. Vasicka A, Kretchmer H. Effect of conduction and inhalation anesthesia on uterine contractions. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1961;82:600–611
  32. McAneny T, Doughty A. Self-administered nitrous-oxide/oxygen analgesia in obstetrics. Anaesthesia. 1963;18:488–497
  33. Rosen M, Mushin W, Jones P, Jones V. Field trial of methoxyflurane, nitrous oxide, and trichloroethylene as obstetric analgesics. Br Med J. 1969;3:263–267
  34. Committee MRC. Report to the Medical Research Council of the Committee on Nitrous Oxide and Oxygen Analgesia in Midwifery. Clinical trials of different concentrations of oxygen and nitrous oxide for obstetric analgesia. Br Med J. 1970;1:709–713
  35. Arthurs G, Rosen M. Self-administered intermittent nitrous oxide analgesia for labour. Anaesthesia. 1979;34:301–309
  36. Amiel-Tison C, Barrier G, Shnider S, et al.  A new neurologic and adaptive capacity scoring system for evaluating obstetric medications in full-term newborns. Anesthesiology. 1982;56:340–350
  37. Scanlon J, Brown W, Weiss J, Alper M. Neurobehavioral responses of newborn infants after maternal epidural anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1974;40:121–128
  38. Zelcer J, Owers H, Paull J. A controlled oximetric evaluation of inhalational, opioid and epidural analgesia in labour. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1989;17:418–421
  39. Arfeen Z, Armstrong P, Whitfield A. The effects of Entonox and epidural analgesia on arterial oxygen saturation of women in labour. Anaesthesia. 1994;49:32–34
  40. Einarsson S, Stenqvist O, Bengtsson A, et al.  Gas kinetics during nitrous oxide analgesia for labour. Anaesthesia. 1996;51:449–452
  41. Mills G, Singh D, Longan M, et al.  Nitrous oxide exposure on the labour ward. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1996;5:160–164
  42. Newton C, Fitz-Henry J, Bogod D. The occupational exposure of midwives to nitrous oxide: a comparison between two labour suites. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1999;8:7–10
  43. Bajekal RR, Turner R, Yentis SM. Anti-infective measures and Entonox equipment: a survey. Anaesthesia. 2000;55:153–154
  44. Ranta P, Jouppila P, Spalding M, et al.  Parturients' assessment of water blocks, pethidine, nitrous oxide, paracervical and epidural blocks in labour. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1994;4:193–198
  45. Harrison R, Shore M, Woods T, et al.  A comparative study of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), entonox, pethidine + promazine and lumbar epidural for pain relief in labor. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1987;66:9–14
  46. Chia Y, Arulkumaran S, Chua S, Ratnam S. Effectiveness of transcutaneous electric nerve stimulator for pain relief in labour. Asia Oceania J Obstet Gynaecol. 1990;16:145–151
  47. Ross J, Tunstall M, Campbell D, Lemon J. The use of 0.25% isoflurane premixed in 50% nitrous oxide and oxygen for pain relief in labour. Anaesthesia. 1999;54:1166–1172
  48. Latto I, Molloy M, Rosen M. Arterial concentrations of nitrous oxide during intermittent patient-controlled inhalation of 50 percent nitrous oxide in oxygen (Entonox) during the first stage of labour. Br J Anaesth. 1973;45:1029–1034
  49. Hohner P, Reiz S. Nitrous oxide and the cardiovascular system. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1994;38:763–766
  50. Stenqvist O. Nitrous oxide kinetics. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1994;38:757–760
  51. Deckardt R, Fembacher P, Schneider K, Graeff H. Maternal arterial oxygen saturation during labor and delivery: pain-dependent alterations and effects on the newborn. Obstet Gynecol. 1987;70:21–25
  52. Reed P, Colquhoun A, Hanning C. Maternal oxygenation during normal labour. Br J Anaesth. 1989;62:316–318
  53. Griffin R, Reynolds F. Maternal hypoxaemia during labour and delivery: the influence of analgesia and effect on neonatal outcome. Anaesthesia. 1995;50:151–156
  54. Stenger V, Blechner J, Prystowsky H. A study of the prolongation of obstetric anesthesia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1969;103:901–907
  55. Marx G, Joshi C, Orkin L. Placental transmission of nitrous oxide. Anesthesiology. 1970;32:429–432
  56. Reid D. Diffusion anoxia at birth. Lancet. 1968;2:757–758
  57. Frumin M, Edelist G. Diffusion anoxia: a critical reappraisal. Anesthesiology. 1969;31:243–249
  58. Mankowitz E, Brock-Utne J, Downing J. Nitrous oxide elimination by the newborn. Anaesthesia. 1981;1981:1014–1016
  59. Eger E. Fetal injury and abortion associated with occupational exposure to inhaled anesthetics. AANA Journal. 1991;59:309–312
  60. Buring J, Hennekens C, Mayrent S, et al.  Health experiences of operating room personnel. Anesthesiology. 1985;62:325–330
  61. Bernow J, Björdal J, Wiklund K. Pollution of delivery ward air by nitrous oxide. Effects of various modes of room ventilation, excess and close scavenging. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1984;28:119–123
  62. Heath B, Done M, Balog O, et al.  The effect of scavenging on nitrous oxide pollution in the delivery suite. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994;34:484–486
  63. Munley A, Railton R, Gray W, Carter K. Exposure of midwives to nitrous oxide in four hospitals. Br Med J. 1986;293:1063–1064
  64. Lye A, Patrick R. Oxygen contamination of the nitrous oxide pipeline supply. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1998;26:207–209
  65. Dolan P. Inhalational analgesia in labour: facemask or mouthpiece. Lancet. 1975;2:1030–1031
  66. Hearn M. Black rubber or clear plastic delivery tubing for nitrous oxide: patient preference. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1993;2:39–40
  67. Arthurs G, Rosen M. Acceptability of continuous nasal nitrous oxide during labour: a field trial in six maternity hospitals. Anaesthesia. 1981;36:384–388
  68. Marx G, Katsnelson T. The introduction of nitrous oxide analgesia into obstetrics. Obstet Gynecol. 1992;80:715–718
  69. Rosen M. Recent advances in pain relief in childbirth. I: Inhalation and systemic analgesia. Br J Anaesth. 1971;43:837–848

 Reprints not available from author. Address correspondence to: Mark A. Rosen, MD, Professor of Anesthesia and Perioperative Care and Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0648. Email: rosenm@anesthesia.ucsf.edu

PII: S0002-9378(02)70186-5

American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology
Volume 186, Issue 5, Supplement , Pages S110-S126 , May 2002